Rhino Husbandry Manual
White Rhinoceros
Management
Group Composition in Captivity
White rhinos are considered semi-social, though adult males appear to be somewhat territorial and basically solitary. Adult females typically associate in pairs consisting of a female and her most recent offspring. A cow without her own calf may tolerate one or more juveniles, or two cows without offspring may associate together. Stable groups of as many as six rhinos may be formed in this way. Data on rhinoceros social organization, combined with preliminary analyses of parameters affecting reproductive success in captivity, may be used to generate recommendations regarding possible social groupings in zoos and conservation centers (Tables 2.1 and 2.2). Many variables affect the probability of success for any managed social group, including the animals’ dispositions and available holding space. Further, depending on space and animal and staffing availability, institutions may hold animals for breeding or for exhibit-only. Facilities that wish to hold rhinos for exhibit purposes only are advised to maintain two animals (male.female: 1.1 or 0.2 or, more recently, 2.0 because of the skew in male births, as well as the ability to house multiple females but only a single, possibly two, males at the breeding institutions). In white rhinos, bachelor male groups have been maintained in very large enclosures (e.g., game parks or ranches). The desire to hold exhibit animals should be expressed to the appropriate species coordinator so that pre- or post-reproductive or single-sex animals may be assigned
Table 2.1 Possibilities for rhino social groupings within the same exhibit in captivity
Multiple animals of same sex
Multiple animals of opposite sex
Species
Adult Males
Adult Females
White
RARE- Depends on habitat size
Recommended
Possible and recommended for breeding
(optimal: one male and two or more females); if possible, an additional male in proximity but not in same enclosure
Black
Not recommended
Successful in related females in test groups.
(See Cleveland Metroparks/Blank Park Zoo)
Possible and recommended for breeding (optimal: 1.1)
Greater One Horned
Not recommended
Recommended in large scale habitats.
Pairings recommended only during peak estrus (with the exception of very large exhibits, which may hold a single male and
female together consistently)
Table 2.2 Recommended numbers of animals for institutional holding.
Rhino Species
Recommended Min. Group
For Breeding
Preferred Optimal Holding for a Breeding Institution
Exhibit Only (For exhibition only)
White
Black
1.2
2.4 (one herd and one back up male)
1.1 or 0.2*
2.2 (2 pairs)
1.1 or 0.2
1.1
Greater one horned
1.1***
2.2 (2 pairs)
1.1 or 0.2**
​
*Must be able to hold for up to three years following birth.
**Multi-male bachelor groups have been maintained in very large enclosures.
*** In the case of greater one-horned rhinos, males and females should be introduced only during the female’s estrous period. Institutions with very large enclosures may be able to hold opposite-sex animals together consistently.
For institutions that have the space and staff available for rhino breeding, it is recommended that managers commit one male and two or more females for this purpose (plus a back-up male). In addition, breeding institutions must also have space to hold offspring for up to three years after birth. Within a single exhibit or holding area, the recommended minimum numbers for breeding are one male and two females. In general, mature males should not be held together because of the increased likelihood of serious aggression. Furthermore, breeding success may be enhanced by separating males from females as little as possible.
Grouped or multiple-species exhibits are possible for white rhinos if ample exhibit space is available. Examples of institutions that have successfully maintained mixed-species exhibits include Fossil Rim Wildlife Center, San Diego Zoo Safari Park, Columbus Zoo, the Wilds, Lowry Park Zoo and Riverbanks Zoo. Species that have been successfully paired in an exhibit with rhinos include sarus cranes, herons, some antelope species (nilgai, blackbuck, gaur, Persian goitered gazelle), mouflon, zebra, and some deer species. In all cases, the dispositions of the individual animals, as well as adequate space and exhibit structure (i.e., visual barriers, refuge areas, etc.), are important to consider prior to attempting a mixed-species exhibit
Mixed Species with White Rhinos
According to the 2015 EAZA Best Practices Guidelines, "The following species are known to be kept with white rhinos : mongoose, monkeys, (plains) zebras, giraffe, crowned crane, ostrich, duck, geese, eland, lechwe, camel, cheetah, ostrich, waterbuck , wildebeest, greater kudu, springbok, blesbok, watussi, nyala , (congo) buffalo and gemsbok. When animals are breeding in the enclosure there should be enough space and hide-outs (Goltenboth et al., 2001).
Identification
Although physical characteristics such as horn size and shape make individual rhinos fairly easy to distinguish from one another, sound rhino management requires that animals be identified through permanent and reliable methods. Trovan® transponders (Electronic Identification Devices, Ltd., Santa Barbara, CA), implanted at the base of the left ear during post-natal examination or as soon after birth as possible, are one means of permanent primary identification for all individuals. Adults should be transpondered opportunistically. Transponder numbers need to be reported to the studbook keeper. In addition to a transponder, each individual should have a secondary visual means of identification, such as an ear tag or ear notch. Photographs or sketches in the animal’s records may also serve this purpose.
Keeper Training and Interaction
As with any position involving the management of large animals, rhinoceros keepers should have as much formal training and experience as possible and should be familiar with rhino behavior and husbandry. In order to ensure safety and to properly meet the requirements of management, it is recommended that more than one keeper be responsible for the care of these animals on a daily basis. Keeper interaction should be restricted to designated areas and should be conducted in accordance with institutional protocols. Finally, consistency of routine is vital. There are no conclusive data to indicate the effects of different styles of keeper interaction on rhinoceros behavior or reproductive success in captivity. Interaction styles range from no contact at all to daily hands-on contact. In an effort to create an environment patterned after the wild, however, at no time should relationships with keepers substitute for natural interaction among individuals. It is important that rhinoceros personnel keep a daily log, noting any unusual behavioral or physical changes. It is the responsibility of management to supply all pertinent data to the studbook keeper.
Daily Regimen
Fresh water should be available at all times and should be changed daily or supplied by an automatic-fill or continuous-flow device. Regular cleaning and disinfecting should occur at a rate that inhibits the growth of algae and bacteria. Water devices should be constructed to prevent upset, spillage or leakage. White rhinos need access to mud baths to keep their skin healthy; mud wallows should be renovated periodically to prevent contamination (see Enclosure Design chapter for more information on wallows). Natural substrates in confined areas (e.g., holding corrals) can be spot-cleaned daily, but daily removal of feces from larger enclosures is not necessary as defecating at dung piles is an important natural behavior (Owen-Smith, 1973). Hard-surfaced areas not exposed to the elements should be dry-cleaned or hosed daily and disinfected at least weekly. Indoor housing surfaces, as well as walls and rub areas, should be cleaned daily. For institutions holding free-ranging herds, these daily cleaning procedures are not practical, but periodic removal of dung heaps and the turning of soil and scattering of manure with proper equipment are necessary to reduce parasite loads. Additionally, the daily hosing or showering of rhinos in the barn with temperature-controlled water is recommended to promote healthy skin during the winter months. In order to facilitate participation in many research programs involving rhinos, it is recommended that institutions implement training programs following the protocols recommended in the Training chapter. Additionally, it is recommended that some form of environmental/behavioral enrichment be integrated into daily rhino management.